Template:Infobox element/symbol-to-oxidation-state/testtable

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Z Name Symbol complete main group val note
 
1 hydrogen H −1, +1 (an amphoteric oxide) −1, +1 1 I
2 helium He 0 0 18 0
3 lithium Li +1 (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
4 beryllium Be +1,[1] +2 (an amphoteric oxide) +2 2 II
5 boron B −5, −1, +1, +2, +3[2][3] (a mildly acidic oxide) +3 13 III
6 carbon C −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1,[4] +2, +3,[5] +4[6] (a mildly acidic oxide) −4, +4 14 IV
7 nitrogen N −3, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (a strongly acidic oxide) −3, +3, +5 15 V
8 oxygen O −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 −2 16 VI
9 fluorine F −1 (oxidizes oxygen) −1 17 VII
10 neon Ne 0 0 18 0
11 sodium Na −1, +1 (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
12 magnesium Mg +1,[7] +2 (a strongly basic oxide) +2 2 II
13 aluminium Al −2, −1, +1,[8] +2,[9] +3 (an amphoteric oxide) +3 13 III
14 silicon Si −4, −3, −2, −1, +1,[10] +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) −4, +4 14 IV
15 phosphorus P −3, −2, −1, +1,[11] +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide) −3, +3, +5 15 V
16 sulfur S −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a strongly acidic oxide) −2, +2, +4, +6 16 VI
17 chlorine Cl −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (a strongly acidic oxide) −1, +1, +3, +5, +7 17 VII
18 argon Ar 0 0 18 0
19 potassium K −1, +1 (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
20 calcium Ca +1,[12] +2 (a strongly basic oxide) +2 2 II
21 scandium Sc +1,[13] +2,[14] +3 (an amphoteric oxide) +3 3 III
22 titanium Ti −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4[15] (an amphoteric oxide) +4 4 IV
23 vanadium V −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (an amphoteric oxide) +5 5 V
24 chromium Cr −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (depending on the oxidation state, an acidic, basic, or amphoteric oxide) +3, +6 6 VI
25 manganese Mn −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (depending on the oxidation state, an acidic, basic, or amphoteric oxide) +2, +4, +7 7 VII
26 iron Fe −4, −2, −1, 0, +1,[16] +2, +3, +4, +5,[17] +6, +7[18] (an amphoteric oxide) +2, +3, +6 8 VIII
27 cobalt Co −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5[19] (an amphoteric oxide) +2, +3 9 VIII
28 nickel Ni −2, −1, 0, +1,[20] +2, +3, +4[21] (a mildly basic oxide) +2 10 VIII
29 copper Cu −2, +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide) +2 11 I
30 zinc Zn −2, 0, +1, +2 (an amphoteric oxide) +2 12 II
31 gallium Ga −5, −4, −3,[22] −2, −1, +1, +2, +3[23] (an amphoteric oxide) +3 13 III
32 germanium Ge −4 −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) −4, +2, +4 14 IV
33 arsenic As −3, −2, −1, +1,[24] +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide) −3, +3, +5 15 V
34 selenium Se −2, −1, +1,[25] +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a strongly acidic oxide) −2, +2, +4, +6 16 VI
35 bromine Br −1, +1, +3, +4, +5, +7 (a strongly acidic oxide) −1, +1, +3, +5 17 VII
36 krypton Kr 0, +1, +2 (rarely more than 0; oxide is unknown) 0 18 0
37 rubidium Rb −1, +1 (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
38 strontium Sr +1,[26] +2 (a strongly basic oxide) +2 2 II
39 yttrium Y 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a weakly basic oxide) +3 3 III
40 zirconium Zr −2, +1,[28] +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) +4 4 IV
41 niobium Nb −3, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide) +5 5 V
42 molybdenum Mo −4, −2, −1, 0, +1,[29] +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a strongly acidic oxide) +4, +6 6 VI
43 technetium Tc −3, −1, 0, +1,[30] +2, +3,[30] +4, +5, +6, +7 (a strongly acidic oxide) +4, +7 7 VII
44 ruthenium Ru −4, −2, 0, +1,[31] +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8 (a mildly acidic oxide) +3, +4 8 VIII
45 rhodium Rh −3, −1, 0, +1,[32] +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (an amphoteric oxide) +3 9 VIII
46 palladium Pd 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide) +2, +4 10 VIII
47 silver Ag −2, −1, +1, +2, +3 (an amphoteric oxide) +1 11 I
48 cadmium Cd −2, +1, +2 (a mildly basic oxide) +2 12 II
49 indium In −5, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3[33] (an amphoteric oxide) +3 13 III
50 tin Sn −4, −3, −2, −1, +1,[34] +2, +3,[35] +4 (an amphoteric oxide) −4, +2, +4 14 IV
51 antimony Sb −3, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (an amphoteric oxide) −3, +3, +5 15 V
52 tellurium Te −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a mildly acidic oxide) −2, +2, +4, +6 16 VI
53 iodine I −1, +1, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (a strongly acidic oxide) −1, +1, +3, +5, +7 17 VII
54 xenon Xe 0, +1, +2, +4, +6, +8 (rarely more than 0; a weakly acidic oxide) 0 18 0
55 caesium Cs −1, +1[36] (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
56 barium Ba +1, +2 (a strongly basic oxide) +2 2 II
57 lanthanum La 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a strongly basic oxide) +3 3 III
58 cerium Ce +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide) +3, +4 n/a -
59 praseodymium Pr 0,[27] +1,[37] +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
60 neodymium Nd 0,[27] +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
61 promethium Pm +2, +3 (a mildly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
62 samarium Sm 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a mildly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
63 europium Eu +1, +2, +3 (a mildly basic oxide) +2, +3 n/a -
64 gadolinium Gd 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a mildly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
65 terbium Tb 0,[27] +1, +2, +3, +4 (a weakly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
66 dysprosium Dy 0,[27] +1, +2, +3, +4 (a weakly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
67 holmium Ho 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a basic oxide) +3 n/a -
68 erbium Er 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a basic oxide) +3 n/a -
69 thulium Tm +2, +3 (a basic oxide) +3 n/a -
70 ytterbium Yb +1, +2, +3 (a basic oxide) +3 n/a -
71 lutetium Lu 0,[27] +1, +2, +3 (a weakly basic oxide) +3 n/a -
72 hafnium Hf −2, +1, +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) +4 4 IV
73 tantalum Ta −3, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide) +5 5 V
74 tungsten W −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a mildly acidic oxide) +4, +6 6 VI
75 rhenium Re −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (a mildly acidic oxide) +4 7 VII
76 osmium Os −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8 (a mildly acidic oxide) +4 8 VIII
77 iridium Ir −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8, +9[38] +3, +4 9 VIII
78 platinum Pt −3, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a mildly basic oxide) +2, +4 10 VIII
79 gold Au −3, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +5 (an amphoteric oxide) +1, +3 11 I
80 mercury Hg −2 , +1 (mercurous), +2 (mercuric) (a mildly basic oxide) +2 12 II
81 thallium Tl −5,[39] −2, −1, +1, +2, +3 (a mildly basic oxide) +1, +3 13 III
82 lead Pb −4, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) +2, +4 14 IV
83 bismuth Bi −3, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide) +3 15 V
84 polonium Po −2, +2, +4, +5,[40] +6 (an amphoteric oxide) −2, +2, +4 16 VI
85 astatine At −1, +1, +3, +5, +7[41] −1, +1 17 VII
86 radon Rn 0, +2, +6 0 18 0
87 francium Fr +1 (a strongly basic oxide) +1 1 I
88 radium Ra +2 (expected to have a strongly basic oxide) +2 2 II
89 actinium Ac +2, +3 (a strongly basic oxide) +3 3 III
90 thorium Th +1, +2, +3, +4 (a weakly basic oxide) +4 n/a -
91 protactinium Pa +2, +3, +4, +5 (a weakly basic oxide) +5 n/a -
92 uranium U +1, +2, +3,[42] +4, +5, +6 (a weakly basic oxide) +6 n/a -
93 neptunium Np +2, +3, +4,[43] +5, +6, +7 (an amphoteric oxide) +5 n/a -
94 plutonium Pu +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (an amphoteric oxide) +4 n/a -
95 americium Am +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 (an amphoteric oxide) +3 n/a -
96 curium Cm +2, +3, +4, +5,[44] +6[45] (an amphoteric oxide) +3 n/a -
97 berkelium Bk +2, +3, +4, +5[44] +3 n/a -
98 californium Cf +2, +3, +4, +5[46][44] +3 n/a -
99 einsteinium Es +2, +3, +4 +3 n/a -
100 fermium Fm +2, +3 +3 n/a -
101 mendelevium Md +2, +3 +3 n/a -
102 nobelium No +2, +3 +2 n/a -
103 lawrencium Lr +3 +3 n/a -
104 rutherfordium Rf (+2), (+3), +4[47][48][49] (parenthesized: prediction) (+3), +4 (parenthesized: prediction) 4 IV
105 dubnium Db (+3), (+4), +5[48][49] (parenthesized: prediction) +5 5 V
106 seaborgium Sg 0, (+3), (+4), (+5), +6[48][49] (parenthesized: prediction) (+4), +6 (parenthesized: prediction) 6 VI
107 bohrium Bh (+3), (+4), (+5), +7[48][49] (parenthesized: prediction) (+3), (+4), (+5), +7 (parenthesized: prediction) 7 VII
108 hassium Hs (+2), (+3), (+4), (+5), (+6), +8[48][50][49][51] (parenthesized: prediction) (+2), (+4), (+6), +8 (parenthesized: prediction) 8 VIII
109 meitnerium Mt (+1), (+3), (+4), (+6), (+8), (+9) (predicted)[48][52][53][49] (+1), (+3), (+6) (predicted) 9 VIII
110 darmstadtium Ds (0), (+2), (+4), (+6), (+8) (predicted)[48][49] (0), (+2), (+8) (predicted) 10 VIII
111 roentgenium Rg (−1), (+1), (+3), (+5), (+7) (predicted)[48][49][54] (+3) (predicted) 11 I
112 copernicium Cn 0, (+1), +2, (+4) (parenthesized: prediction)[48][55][49] 0, +2 12 II
113 nihonium Nh (−1), (+1), (+3), (+5) (predicted)[48][49][56] (+1), (+3) (predicted) 13 III
114 flerovium Fl (0), (+1), (+2), (+4), (+6) (predicted)[48][49][57] (+2) (predicted) 14 IV
115 moscovium Mc (+1), (+3) (predicted)[48][49] (+1), (+3) (predicted) 15 V
116 livermorium Lv (−2),[58] (+2), (+4) (predicted)[48] (+2) (predicted) 16 VI
117 tennessine Ts (−1), (+1), (+3), (+5) (predicted)[49][48] (+1), (+3) (predicted) 17 VII
118 oganesson Og (−1),[48] (0), (+1),[59] (+2),[60] (+4),[60] (+6)[48] (predicted) (+2), (+4) (predicted) 18 0
119 ununennium Uue (+1), (+3) (predicted)[48] (+1) (predicted) 1 I
120 unbinilium Ubn (+1),[61] (+2), (+4) (predicted)[48] (+2) (predicted) 2 II
121 unbiunium Ubu (+1), (+3) (predicted)[48][62] (+3) (predicted) 3 III
122 unbibium Ubb (+4) (predicted)[63] (+4) (predicted) -
123 unbitrium Ubt (+5) (predicted)[63] (+5) (predicted)
124 unbiquadium Ubq (+6) (predicted)[63] (+6) (predicted)
125 unbipentium Ubp (+1), (+6), (+7) (predicted)[63] (+6), (+7) (predicted)
126 unbihexium Ubh (+1), (+2), (+4), (+6), (+8) (predicted)[63] (+4), (+6), (+8) (predicted)

References[edit source]

  1. ↑ "Beryllium: Beryllium(I) Hydride compound data" (PDF). bernath.uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  2. ↑ Zhang, K.Q.; Guo, B.; Braun, V.; Dulick, M.; Bernath, P.F. (1995). "Infrared Emission Spectroscopy of BF and AIF" (PDF). J. Molecular Spectroscopy. 170 (1): 82. Bibcode:1995JMoSp.170...82Z. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1995.1058. 
  3. ↑ Melanie Schroeder. "Eigenschaften von borreichen Boriden und Scandium-Aluminium-Oxid-Carbiden" (PDF) (in Deutsch). p. 139. 
  4. ↑ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06. 
  5. ↑ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06. 
  6. ↑ "Carbon: Binary compounds". Retrieved 2007-12-06. 
  7. ↑ Bernath, P. F.; Black, J. H. & Brault, J. W. (1985). "The spectrum of magnesium hydride" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 298: 375. Bibcode:1985ApJ...298..375B. doi:10.1086/163620. 
  8. ↑ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35 (2): 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291. 
  9. ↑ D. C. Tyte (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0. 
  10. ↑ Ram, R. S.; et al. (1998). "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" (PDF). J. Mol. Spectr. 190 (2): 341–352. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1998.7582. PMID 9668026. 
  11. ↑ Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2006). "Phosphorus(I) Iodide: A Versatile Metathesis Reagent for the Synthesis of Low Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (17): 6864–74. doi:10.1021/ic060186o. PMID 16903744. 
  12. ↑ Krieck, Sven; Görls, Helmar; Westerhausen, Matthias (2010). "Mechanistic Elucidation of the Formation of the Inverse Ca(I) Sandwich Complex [(thf)3Ca(μ-C6H3-1,3,5-Ph3)Ca(thf)3] and Stability of Aryl-Substituted Phenylcalcium Complexes". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (35): 12492–12501. doi:10.1021/ja105534w. PMID 20718434. 
  13. ↑ Smith, R. E. (1973). "Diatomic Hydride and Deuteride Spectra of the Second Row Transition Metals". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 332 (1588): 113–127. Bibcode:1973RSPSA.332..113S. doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0015. 
  14. ↑ McGuire, Joseph C.; Kempter, Charles P. (1960). "Preparation and Properties of Scandium Dihydride". Journal of Chemical Physics. 33 (5): 1584–1585. Bibcode:1960JChPh..33.1584M. doi:10.1063/1.1731452. 
  15. ↑ Andersson, N.; et al. (2003). "Emission spectra of TiH and TiD near 938 nm" (PDF). J. Chem. Phys. 118 (8): 10543. Bibcode:2003JChPh.118.3543A. doi:10.1063/1.1539848. 
  16. ↑ Ram, R. S. & Bernath, P. F. (2003). "Fourier transform emission spectroscopy of the g4Δ-a4Δ system of FeCl" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy. 221 (2): 261. Bibcode:2003JMoSp.221..261R. doi:10.1016/S0022-2852(03)00225-X. 
  17. ↑ Demazeau, G.; Buffat, B.; Pouchard, M.; Hagenmuller, P. (1982). "Recent developments in the field of high oxidation states of transition elements in oxides stabilization of Six-coordinated Iron(V)". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. 491: 60–66. doi:10.1002/zaac.19824910109. 
  18. ↑ Lu, J.; Jian, J.; Huang, W.; Lin, H.; Li, J; Zhou, M. (2016). "Experimental and theoretical identification of the Fe(VII) oxidation state in FeO4−". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 18 (45): 31125–31131. Bibcode:2016PCCP...1831125L. doi:10.1039/C6CP06753K. PMID 27812577. 
  19. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 1117–1119. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 
  20. ↑ Pfirrmann, Stefan; Limberg, Christian; Herwig, Christian; Stößer, Reinhard; Ziemer, Burkhard (2009). "A Dinuclear Nickel(I) Dinitrogen Complex and its Reduction in Single-Electron Steps". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 48 (18): 3357–61. doi:10.1002/anie.200805862. PMID 19322853. 
  21. ↑ Carnes, Matthew; Buccella, Daniela; Chen, Judy Y.-C.; Ramirez, Arthur P.; Turro, Nicholas J.; Nuckolls, Colin; Steigerwald, Michael (2009). "A Stable Tetraalkyl Complex of Nickel(IV)". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 48 (2): 290–4. doi:10.1002/anie.200804435. PMID 19021174. 
  22. ↑ Ga(−3) has been observed in LaGa, see Dürr, Ines; Bauer, Britta; Röhr, Caroline (2011). "Lanthan-Triel/Tetrel-ide La(Al,Ga)x(Si,Ge)1-x. Experimentelle und theoretische Studien zur Stabilität intermetallischer 1:1-Phasen" (PDF). Z. Naturforsch. (in Deutsch). 66b: 1107–1121. 
  23. ↑ Hofmann, Patrick (1997). Colture. Ein Programm zur interaktiven Visualisierung von Festkörperstrukturen sowie Synthese, Struktur und Eigenschaften von binären und ternären Alkali- und Erdalkalimetallgalliden (PDF) (in Deutsch). PhD Thesis, ETH Zurich. p. 72. doi:10.3929/ethz-a-001859893. ISBN 978-3728125972. 
  24. ↑ Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2004). "Stabilized Arsenic(I) Iodide: A Ready Source of Arsenic Iodide Fragments and a Useful Reagent for the Generation of Clusters". Inorganic Chemistry. 43 (19): 5981–6. doi:10.1021/ic049281s. PMID 15360247. 
  25. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 
  26. ↑ Colarusso, P.; Guo, B.; Zhang, K.-Q.; Bernath, P. F. (1996). "High-Resolution Infrared Emission Spectrum of Strontium Monofluoride" (PDF). J. Molecular Spectroscopy. 175 (1): 158. Bibcode:1996JMoSp.175..158C. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1996.0019. 
  27. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce, Pm, Eu, Tm, Yb have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. 
  28. ↑ "Zirconium: zirconium(I) fluoride compound data". OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  29. ↑ "Molybdenum: molybdenum(I) fluoride compound data". OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  30. ↑ a b "Technetium: technetium(III) iodide compound data". OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  31. ↑ "Ruthenium: ruthenium(I) fluoride compound data". OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  32. ↑ "Rhodium: rhodium(I) fluoride compound data". OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  33. ↑ Guloy, A. M.; Corbett, J. D. (1996). "Synthesis, Structure, and Bonding of Two Lanthanum Indium Germanides with Novel Structures and Properties". Inorganic Chemistry. 35 (9): 2616–22. doi:10.1021/ic951378e. 
  34. ↑ "HSn". NIST Chemistry WebBook. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 January 2013. 
  35. ↑ "SnH3". NIST Chemistry WebBook. National Institure of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 January 2013. 
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  37. ↑ Chen, Xin; et al. (2019-12-13). "Lanthanides with Unusually Low Oxidation States in the PrB3– and PrB4– Boride Clusters". Inorganic Chemistry. 58 (1): 411–418. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02572. PMID 30543295. 
  38. ↑ Wang, Guanjun; Zhou, Mingfei; Goettel, James T.; Schrobilgen, Gary G.; Su, Jing; Li, Jun; Schlöder, Tobias; Riedel, Sebastian (2014). "Identification of an iridium-containing compound with a formal oxidation state of IX". Nature. 514 (7523): 475–477. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..475W. doi:10.1038/nature13795. PMID 25341786. 
  39. ↑ Dong, Z.-C.; Corbett, J. D. (1996). "Na23K9Tl15.3: An Unusual Zintl Compound Containing Apparent Tl57−, Tl48−, Tl37−, and Tl5− Anions". Inorganic Chemistry. 35 (11): 3107–12. doi:10.1021/ic960014z. 
  40. ↑ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists: 78. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. 
  41. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 
  42. ↑ Morss, L.R.; Edelstein, N.M.; Fuger, J., eds. (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 978-9048131464. 
  43. ↑ Np(II), (III) and (IV) have been observed, see Dutkiewicz, Michał S.; Apostolidis, Christos; Walter, Olaf; Arnold, Polly L (2017). "Reduction chemistry of neptunium cyclopentadienide complexes: from structure to understanding". Chem. Sci. 8 (4): 2553–2561. doi:10.1039/C7SC00034K. PMC 5431675 Freely accessible. PMID 28553487. 
  44. ↑ a b c Kovács, Attila; Dau, Phuong D.; Marçalo, Joaquim; Gibson, John K. (2018). "Pentavalent Curium, Berkelium, and Californium in Nitrate Complexes: Extending Actinide Chemistry and Oxidation States". Inorg. Chem. American Chemical Society. 57 (15): 9453–9467. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b01450. PMID 30040397. 
  45. ↑ Domanov, V. P.; Lobanov, Yu. V. (October 2011). "Formation of volatile curium(VI) trioxide CmO3". Radiochemistry. SP MAIK Nauka/Interperiodica. 53 (5): 453–6. doi:10.1134/S1066362211050018. 
  46. ↑ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1265.
  47. ↑ "Rutherfordium". Royal Chemical Society. Retrieved 2019-09-21. 
  48. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. 
  49. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 116. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013. 
  50. ↑ Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements (New ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 215–217. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7. 
  51. ↑ Düllmann, Christoph E. (31 October 2008). "Investigation of group 8 metallocenes @ TASCA" (PDF). 7th Workshop on Recoil Separator for Superheavy Element Chemistry TASCA 08. Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2014. 
  52. ↑ Ionova, G. V.; Ionova, I. S.; Mikhalko, V. K.; Gerasimova, G. A.; Kostrubov, Yu. N.; Suraeva, N. I. (2004). "Halides of Tetravalent Transactinides (Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt, 110th Element): Physicochemical Properties". Russian Journal of Coordination Chemistry. 30 (5): 352. doi:10.1023/B:RUCO.0000026006.39497.82. 
  53. ↑ Himmel, Daniel; Knapp, Carsten; Patzschke, Michael; Riedel, Sebastian (2010). "How Far Can We Go? Quantum-Chemical Investigations of Oxidation State +IX". ChemPhysChem. 11 (4): 865–9. doi:10.1002/cphc.200900910. PMID 20127784. 
  54. ↑ Conradie, Jeanet; Ghosh, Abhik (15 June 2019). "Theoretical Search for the Highest Valence States of the Coinage Metals: Roentgenium Heptafluoride May Exist". Inorganic Chemistry. 2019 (58): 8735–8738. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.9b01139. 
  55. ↑ Gäggeler, Heinz W.; Türler, Andreas (2013). "Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements". The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 415–483. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1_8. Retrieved 2018-04-21. 
  56. ↑ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". In Barysz, Maria; Ishikawa, Yasuyuki. Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Springer. pp. 63–67. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. 
  57. ↑ Schwerdtfeger, Peter; Seth, Michael (2002). "Relativistic Quantum Chemistry of the Superheavy Elements. Closed-Shell Element 114 as a Case Study" (PDF). Journal of Nuclear and Radiochemical Sciences. 3 (1): 133–136. doi:10.14494/jnrs2000.3.133. Retrieved 12 September 2014. 
  58. ↑ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists: 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. 
  59. ↑ Han, Young-Kyu; Bae, Cheolbeom; Son, Sang-Kil; Lee, Yoon Sup (2000). "Spin–orbit effects on the transactinide p-block element monohydrides MH (M=element 113–118)". Journal of Chemical Physics. 112 (6): 2684. Bibcode:2000JChPh.112.2684H. doi:10.1063/1.480842. 
  60. ↑ a b Kaldor, Uzi; Wilson, Stephen (2003). Theoretical Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements. Springer. p. 105. ISBN 978-1402013713. Retrieved 2008-01-18. 
  61. ↑ Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists: 84. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. 
  62. ↑ Amador, Davi H. T.; de Oliveira, Heibbe C. B.; Sambrano, Julio R.; Gargano, Ricardo; de Macedo, Luiz Guilherme M. (12 September 2016). "4-Component correlated all-electron study on Eka-actinium Fluoride (E121F) including Gaunt interaction: Accurate analytical form, bonding and influence on rovibrational spectra". Chemical Physics Letters. 662: 169–175. Bibcode:2016CPL...662..169A. doi:10.1016/j.cplett.2016.09.025. 
  63. ↑ a b c d e Pyykkö, Pekka (2011). "A suggested periodic table up to Z ≤ 172, based on Dirac–Fock calculations on atoms and ions". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 13 (1): 161–8. Bibcode:2011PCCP...13..161P. doi:10.1039/c0cp01575j. PMID 20967377. 

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